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From this evolved star forts, also known as trace italienne. | ɣur idagan wi ahanen win etran s itawan aɣalay wan italia |
The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon. | Nefran wan issin isilmăd as izjar isim net hullan fal as war eha aš-ak tille titbaqqet andarrat taɣlasat sit wen daɣ tewete n albarod wa măqqoran |
Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies. | šato tan tin tiditt idayan tanat daɣ Amerika addawla tan ti s kala ahanat atiwikraš n Frans ed Spania |
Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century. | Daɣ ihanan iyyad n ag-az (ehan ihanan wi s itawanna Fort tan ed sitadel tan) , šato tan ikras nat tolas daɣ Frans ta teynayat ɣur amindi n awatay wan 1700. |
The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner. | Ehan wa s itawan manor ed iɣalayan win ibijwan a han aɣalay issintaman ilahan esik ijilallawen daɣ edag fuk |
Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use. | Kuddeɣ as edey n šato ilach ɣur amindi n awatay wan 1600 , šato tan fuk nasnat war tanat issoda axadam nasnat |
In other cases they still had a role in defence. | Daɣ idagan iyyad ilan majrad daɣ awa id eqqalan ag-az |
In later conflicts, such as the English Civil War (1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently slighted to prevent them from being used again. | Daɣ ikinnasan wi išraynen šund ikinnas wan jir išaɣib wan britania (1641-1651) šato tan ajotnen issintaman tanat addinat kuddeɣ as tanat tigraw tagarzazzal has nat tigdalat alxidmat iyyat har ajudi |
Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture. | Asissini meɣ amasxir s ato tan eqqal harat izgaran eqqalan assilmad n tarha tan afor id abaraj daɣ iwityan win aru tolas ašrut n teynaya n asimɣar n gotik daɣ ikarosan |
This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards. | Awen fal as a fal tarhed ad torakad s innugh wan kel aru a tayad ihanan sammednen ahanat tihay fal imugašan win iwityan wi daɣ naha |
Follies were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built. | Amaku ola kuddeɣ as izlay daɣ aɣašad n addinat daɣ awen war eqqel šund etaɣas igan immik mušan ola id a war n ila ittus s edey. |
A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce. | šato ta s iɣalayan wi tat aɣlafnen, egam, imastaran wi ihiskkan id ihanan wi maqqornen war tan he idayan addinat war n issen alxidmat |
The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material. | Alqim n edey n šato izlay s fal as tiyyat tim maqqornen tolas arhanat alqiman win asihunin n imutaj |
In the middle were castles such as Orford, which was built in the late 12th century for UK£1,400, and at the upper end were those such as Dover, which cost about UK£7,000 between 1181 and 1191. | Daɣ ammas illan ti chato tan šund Orford idayan daɣ 12 n efad n awatay wi hin okaynen s 1,400 £ n azruf wan britania tolas ɣur amindi net wan s afalla illan ti iyyad chund Dover ikrasan jir awatay wan 1181 ed 1191 s 7,000 £ n azruf wan Britania |
The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from UK£1,000 to UK£10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances. | Alqim n šato maqqorat tidayat s azzaman wen ( edag fuk ɣur 1,000 £ har £10,000 n azruf wan Britania) erammas azruf n ihanan win manor tan ajjotnen ikmanen emannaɣaf n kel azruf |
Medieval machines and inventions, such as the treadwheel crane, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden scaffolding were improved upon from Antiquity. | Maršin tan tin azzaman wan ibda d timaxluken nasan šund tarkertkert, aqqalan a ehušalan daɣ akaros, tolas musnaten n akaras wan asiftin iknan s ahišk ammutayan ɣur azzaman wen daɣ arruwan. |
Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick. | Addawla tan ajotnen ilanat chato tan n ihishkan id tikadayen as ijja awen addawla wan Danemark ila harat n difart |
For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick. | Ilmital alwaq wa id tiday šato tan Tattershall jir awatay wan 1430 id wan 1450, illanat ti edes has tikadayen ajjotnen mušan massis Lord Cromwell assofa ad idi s ilbilɣan |
He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined. | Igda has tilal ta has ijjan addinat wi has ardaɣnen fal as a fal wadden s tilalt n addinat wi has ilkamnen emannaɣaf war itirid as tanaya net ad ilkam ad timda |
This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries. | Awen inta deɣ iwar tanaya tan tichit n rayis s alwaqqan iyyad ikarraš akal daɣ addawlat tan tiyyad |
Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious. | Timašɣulen tin arraxba n ehan wan rayis olahnat id tin wan rayis wa has illan sider kuddeɣ as aqqiman fal taxyamen maqqornen |
As social centres castles were important places for display. | Ihanan n šato tan tin tamazduq n addinat aqqalan idagan n adal |
Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features. | šato tan ogdah nat id katedral tan as aqqalan ikarosan n tammal tolas tiyyad daɣ šato tan ahan tanat ifirjan aqqalnen šund adaloj |
Courtly love was the eroticisation of love between the nobility. | Anmarha daɣ aɣalay wan rayis eqqal šund iji n iblis i abakad jir imissirha |
The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages. | Tanfust n Tristan id Iseult taqqal ilmital n attarex n anmarha wa s itwana daɣ aɣalay n rayis dagh iwityan win aru. |
The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land. | Ittus n adubin jir imuzaran win kel aru war ija ɣas ar fal ag-az n akal |
This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet. | Awen izjar id taswera n šato šund ehan n mušakil mušan šato tan ajjotnen daɣ Britania, France, Ireland, Ecosse kala war ijjehan ikinnasan daɣ awen tamudre tan ehan taqqal as itiwaja tagarzazzal |
For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area. | Daɣ ilmital šato tan ajjoten ahanat edes n abara tan win Roma s kala aqqalan abara tan n ahunin assohaten daɣ iwityan win aru meɣ addoben a did aruwan iban anufham meɣ ikannan n ichikil n abara tana eynaynen daɣ akal wen. |
Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns. | šato tan win iɣirman aqqalan a olaɣan dagh iji n anniyat i tamazduq n išaɣib id immuk nasan assahat hullan daɣ anafaz daɣ ilmital idiršan n araman wa ijjan Norman tan i Britania ɣur awatay wan 1100, Ijjit n šato tan rayis ikrasnat daɣ meɣ edes n iɣirman |
Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources. | šato tan tin amagon ahan tanat alwaq iyyan maršin tan id sistem tan i ijji n anniyat i akal wan rayis awen ikfen assahat fal tidarfiten |
Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain. | War eha aš-ak as i tajjin alxidmat tiknat fal as hak in addinat aman id imanan eynaynen mušan aqqalan šund tiset fal as assohat akros nasan id aɣalaf nasan |
The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe. | Tinfa ta tahat akaros n šato edes n timizdaɣ war tibded ɣur Eroba ɣas |
Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences. | Timizdaɣ ojjar as addobat nat ad idwil nat edes n šato uhun adamu nasnat fal awa s tinfa ta tahat ahirij id idagan win tamudre daɣ amagon tolas alɣafiyat ta ti ikfan imagazan |
They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures occupying the desired site. | Harkuk ahan edes n mangazan tan aɣrim šund Iɣalayan win Roma kuddeɣ as alwaqqan iyyad uchray nasan egadal n ikarosan fuk wi ahanen sit wen idorhanan |
When the Normans invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle. | Alwaq wa id infazan Norman tan daɣ addawlat tan Ireland, Ecosse id Wales ghur awatay wan 1100 id wan 1200 , timizdagh daɣ addawla tan tin ojjar as wadden tin iɣirman tolas tenattawt n tiɣirmen osaɣ id akaros n chato |
This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society. | Awen imos as tartit ta ijjan imannaɣafan win aru id ehan n kriken wan amud iyyan daɣ ihanan wa ojjaran daɣ tamazduq tan ibda |
Another example is that of the 14th-century Bodiam Castle, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining. | Ilmital iyyan imos wan šato tan Bodiam ɣur awatay wa 1400 daɣ Britania tolas, kuddeɣ as eqqal akal n inhadan, šato tan ti šajrotnen tahat sit war n ila assahat iyyat tolas eɣeš war šijrit tolas ajjar as ijja sit wen a huskiyan uhun awa ti ogazan daɣ alɣam tan. |
Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important. | Taqqimen n alɣiskir ti ogaznen akal assohat asudir nasnat tolas alwaq iyyan tojjar tan šato tinfa |
In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective. | ɣur awatay wan 1403, 37 n militer tan win allaɣan iknan ag-az n šato tan Caernafon daɣ issin iftaqqi tan n imidiwan win Owain Glyndŵr's a ehojjan daɣ azzaman issilmadan as taqqimt andarrat taddobat a tabdid fal iman net |
Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class. | ɣur azzaman wan net a ti imalan kel ibijwan imoyanen i teɣare n alɣiskir ta ijjan ad ajjin alxidmat n dumu n anušam |
It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites. | Ojjar as raqqis asijru n laz taqqimt n alɣiskir uhun aftaqqi fal as hullan daɣ sit tan wi iknanen atwigiz |
A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later. | Aɣafal ehojan addobat ikus n assahat daɣ alghiskir har id ariw awen tadhilen meɣ i emazangaw ad issidu assahat i a ilkaman |
If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers. | A fal eqqal aftaqqi fal chato a ilkaman i assahat, illan ti addabara tan ajjotnen i inadlaman |
The trebuchet, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons. | Tetanbawt s war eha ach-ak as sa s Petraria a did tifal ɣur awatay wan 1300, taqqal albarod issohen i aɣafal n militer data tiwit tin albarodan |
Ballistas or springalds were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows. | Ballista id springald aqqalan tazoli ti tajjit alxidmat chund tan tišangay |
They were more commonly used against the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle. | Ojjar awa iwatan taqqimen tin alɣiskir uhun awa ijjašan ihanan win šato |
A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned. | Alɣam ta tikkat siha s aɣalay ad teɣešt alwaq wata id ewad awa eqqalan ittus , ad igiš efew ahišk wa igdalan i anu ad aftaqqat |
A counter-mine could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat. | Alɣam wa iknan i inadlaman ad eɣeš siha sarsan s a fal tijja tamuqqest, a did ariw akinnas wan ifassan |
They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect. | Kala s alxidmat nasan war taqqel ar amiri n albaban win šato tan, kuddeɣ as alwaqqan iyyed t iw axdaman iɣalayan war taha assahat. |
A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a siege tower, sometimes called a belfry. | Addabara wa eha alxer i addinat wi tiftaqqitnen fal šato war eqqel ar asaxdim n awa s itawan belfry |
The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe. | Ikallan wi ahanen daɣ tanaya tan rayis,megh karad ikallan aqqalan alxaq daɣ tamazduq assigla iddin wan ikufar ( ikufar win euroba) ɣur iwityan win aru har Euroba tan ušray. |
The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate). | Almalikiya ehet almalik id almalikat as ijja sistem artayan daɣ is kahanat tan ( Amuzar n akal), imissirha (kal akal wi ilkamnen) tilaqqawen id addinat win ammas (kel akal win karad) |
"In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with ""commons"" as the second estate." | “Daɣ Britania, akal ilan issin sistem tan issirtayan imissirha id kahanat tan daɣ edag iyyan n tanaya n almalik with “common tan” as aqqalan kel akal win issin” |
"In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or ""burghers"" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class." | “Daɣ addawla tan Ecosse, kel akal win karad aqqalan qahanat ( amuzar n akal), imissirha ( kel akal win issin), id komiser wa iwikalan akal meɣ ““burgher tan”” (Win karad) imosnen inušaman, addinat win ammas id wi war taha assahat” |
Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation. | Alwaq wa s kahanat war addoben adubin , tamašarwayat ten tizzukat ɣur tawlid iyyat |
Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47). | Huizinga afanaz n iwityan wi arunen (1919, 1924:47). |
Commoners were universally considered the lowest order. | Commoner tan itiwassan daɣ alɣalim as aqqalan addinat wi darat daɣ tamazduq |
In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates. | Daɣ rejion tan id ikallan ajjotnen imalan ti daɣ idagan daɣ exlaq išaɣib daɣ tifirray n idagan win |
The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect. | Amutti wan tamudre id folitik assaxra tan idnayan daɣ azzaman wen tiwat n išaɣib, tiw-at n alfayda tan tiwijjast, medran tan teknoloji id idagan win aɣrim; issamutiyan n talghiwen id asissini ijjanen daɣ asimil n uzlay jir qahanat tan id aljuhal id tanaya ta fal erda egliz inta deɣ tila awa tinfa |
The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous. | Addinat wi ilkamnen, win imikkunasan , aqqalan wi ahanen edag awa iknan assahat daɣ folitik, ilanen ittusan tolas i labasnen |
In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring. | Har ajjudi, Missawis n kel akal wi azzarnen id win issin ijjan fella nasan fal addinat wi war taha assahat aqqalnen win darat daɣ tamazduq |
Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it. | Ajjen axlakan id daɣ taqqimt ten hi tolas ammutan daɣ as aqqalan ašrut net. |
In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms. | Daɣ ayor n awzem wan issin daɣ awatay wan 1776, ministir wan azruf Turgot itawakkas daɣ edag net fal as indar ad egu ejwal net fal ad erawan amutti n talgha |
When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation. | Alwaq wa id war addobat a tan essardu fal “brogram wa otas”, Louis XVI ittar ad ifti tagayt ta s itawan estate-general mušan addinat win darat daɣ tamazduq ittaran alxaq nasan i ad igišan |
Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons. | Fal as assemble tan Ecosse taqqal a ilan ehan iyyan, dibiti tan net fuk ehan iyyan a daɣ tayghimin awen izlay id assemble tan britania tilat ehan wan Lord tan id wan common tan. |
"As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium ""great council"" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots)." | "Išmad daɣ Britania, assemble tan Ireland tinkaš in sa s Magnum Concilium ““edag n taɣimit ta maqqorat”” isayɣim Gafar wa ezzaran n Ireland daɣ as ti idhal komsey (curia regis), magnate tan (imannaɣafan win akal), id imuzaran n egliz (bomber tan)." |
In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them). | Daɣ awatay wan 1297, tiɣarmaten imuzaran nasnat kel ibajawan immitkalnen “sherif tan as kala hasan tizarnen) |
Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates. | Iyyan fuk nasnat aqqalan meddan ilanen alxoriya nasan tolas iyyan fuk ila alxaqan id timazalen n iman net id alxaq n ad isissiwi addinat s RiKsdag n ikallan |
Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly. | Data awatay wan 1800, almalik ila alxaq n ad itkil addabara n a fal ikallan azzunan s tigdat |
However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863. | Had id ijja awen, darat Diet wan Provoo , Diet wan addawla tan Finland tijja fal tariddawt ɣur awatay wan 1863 |
Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land. | ɣur awatay wan 1400, imal ti baya, ɣur 1561 rank tan id Baron tan ijjašan tolas ɣur awatay wan 1625 ehan wan imannaɣafan ikodat as eqqal wa ezzaran daɣ akal |
Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles. | Imuzaran n ihanan win imannaɣafan aqqalan addinat id itranen takasit n assmeble tan imannaɣafan |
This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility. | Awen eraw id assahat n folitik maqqoran fal Imannaɣafan win afalla |
In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools. | Daɣ iwityan win ušray, akal ahan moši tan win lakkolan wi maqqornen id lakkolan iyyad n addawla |
Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds. | Mamala ille daɣ tiɣarmaten alwaq wen ta-ite tan ijji asahat daɣ alxakumat tojjar hullan tolas Burgh tan ilan alxaqqan n iman nasan i ijji n mamala daɣ abara wan tagayen |
In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights. | A fal tarha tamazduq a taqqil šund taɣrimt , ahušal ad ikrašš alkad n almalik ikfan turhagat s asimil n hebu tolas mamala wan jir addawla tan ahušal ad ila alkad wan alxaqan win port tan |
Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries. | Alwaq wa s ijjit n išaɣib aqqalan addinat n tiwigas ilalen alistexlal nasan har awatay wan 1900 wadden serf tan wala villein tan, ille jar essan attarex izlayan id wan addawla tan tin eroba. |
Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district. | Imuzaran n tanaya war tan dikkilan addinat , taɣrimt fuk a tasisaway kel wote tan net i ad itkilan imuzaran daɣ wote tan kapital. |
They had no political rights and could not vote. | War ilen alxaqan n folitik tolas war addoben ijji n wote |
In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property. | Daɣ addawla tan Suede , Riksdag wan ikallan kala ti illa har ti išray Riksdag wan issin ihanan ɣur awatay wan 1866 ikfan alxaqan n folitik i awadim fuk ilan a daɣ ikarraš tamudre net meɣ ilan tila |
In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772. | Daɣ addawla tan Finland, tazunt ten daɣ ašareɣa kala ti tilla har awatay wan 1906 har ajjudi iktab daɣ konstitusyon tan awatay wan 1772 |
Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system. | Har ajjudi, inaxdiman win izin tan izzaɣnen dagh aɣrim war ilen imuzaran daɣ sistem wan kel akal win akkoz |
Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled. | Darat awa ɣur awatay wan 1500 id 1600 addawla tan Beljik taqqal edag wan tiɣaymaten tin State General |
As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands. | Awa ikma tartit tan Utrecht daɣ awatay wan 1579 id haratan wi has ilkamnen darat awa, state general illaghat as ibas issodmaran i rayis wan Spania Philip wan 2 eqqalan har ajjudi rayis n addawla tan Pays-bas |
It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands. | ɣur edag wan alxakum inta ad kannin haratan wi id aqqalnen tiɣarmaten tin assayat artaynen id addawlat tan Pays-Bas |
In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632. | Daɣ emaynaj n Pays-Bas, tiɣaymaten tin darat n States General ilkamnen i Habsburgs ijjan- at daɣ ɣur awatay wan 1600 id wan 1632 daɣ Estate General |
It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution. | Ibas ti ahan imuzaran n addawla tan , aqqiman ɣas Estate tan: Addinat fuk ogdahan alxaq daɣ achareɣa wan 1798 |
In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber. | ɣur awatay wan 1815, alwaq artayan kel Pays-bas id Belgik id luxemburg, State General tan azunan s issin tehanniten: tehannit ta tazzarat id tehannit tan sanatat. |
From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial. | ɣur awatay wan 1848, Ašareɣa wa maqqoran n Danemark ikfa addinat win tehanniten tan sanatat s ijjan addinat wote ( s tizarat harat n iddikud n išaɣib ɣas n meddan , wote wan meddan id deden imal ti ɣur awatay wan 1919) as ijja awen addinat wi ahanen tehannit ta tazzarat sinafranantan addinat win tiɣarmaten tin addawla tan. |
The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries. | Imuzaran win qahanat war imosan ar bomber tan ijalanen fal iman nasan |
Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages. | Addinat ajjoten s ikallan nasan daɣ Roma tan talwilit n aru ijrawnen alistexlal nasan a ilan timad n iwityan war ilen imuzaran daɣ tanaya tan rayis tolas awen ahan ti kel ibijwan wan rayis id vilaj tan ilanen alistexal nasan |
The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein. | Ikallan win akkoz maqqornen amosan: Imassarha (dvoyanstvo), qahanat, kel amagon id kel iɣirman ijjan tamazduq timmerat |
The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities. | Burjwazi daɣ almaɣna net wan alasal ijja temet id emel wan tiɣarmaten tiwazdaynen fal tikardiwen nasnat (ilmital,tikardiwen tin meri, semɣaran win tiɣarmaten , achareɣa n aɣrim wan germany) daɣ awen war ti tilla burjwazi tizlayat id tišit n awadim n akal daɣ tiɣarmaten |
"Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted ""the bourgeoisie""." | “”Daɣ attarex, issim wa s jannin fransi tan bourgeois imos addinat wi izzaɣnen daɣ Bourg ( ighirman ijjan ighalayan) inhadan,kel mamala tan, id iyyad awen daɣ as itiwin “”bourgeoisie”” |
Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. | Tagayen n akkarnat alwaq id kel taɣuchay iyyad fuk (šund inhadan id kel mamala) iknasan id imannaɣafan n akal wi tattarnen timzal wi tattarnen timzal ojjarnen ti fal ijja anifham |
They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations. | Arhan a tan ila egadaš s kala eqqal Bourgeois a ilan karad meɣ ajjen daɣ iwityan |
The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history. | Ismawan n igidchan win ttiwazzayan daɣ aɣrim wa daɣ izzaɣan tolas addinat wi id izjaran dahalan daɣ akaros n attarex wan akal |
These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time. | Addinat win daɣ izzaghan daɣ tanaflit ilkaman hassan kel isuhaɣ win azzaman wen daɣ |
In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible. | Daɣ tafransit , awa s itawan bourgeoisie eqqal isim n tawset kud erha as tiwat n addinat id tamudre nasan tijja |
Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk. | Hilter iftay kapitalizm fal as ila taflasat fal awa s ifarras addinat tolas assof addawla s tamudre net infa talɣiwen tin ichaɣib |